Humanism Emerges
Books also helped to spread awareness of a new philosophy that emerged
when Renaissance scholars known as humanists returned to the works of
ancient writers. Previously, during the Middle Ages, scholars had been
guided by the teachings of the church,
and people had concerned themselves with actions leading to heavenly
rewards. The writings of ancient, pagan Greece and Rome, called the
"classics," had been greatly ignored. To study the classics, humanists
learned to read Greek and ancient
Latin, and they sought out manuscripts that had lain undisturbed for
nearly 2,000
years.
The humanists rediscovered writings on scientific matters, government,
rhetoric, philosophy, and art. They were influenced by the knowledge of
these ancient civilizations and by the emphasis placed on man, his intellect,
and his life on Earth.
The Humanist Philosophy
The new interest in secular life led to beliefs about
education and society that came from Greece and Rome. The secular, humanist
idea held that the church should not rule civic matters, but should guide
only spiritual matters. The church disdained the accumulation of wealth and worldly
goods, supported a strong but limited education, and believed that moral
and ethical behavior was dictated by scripture. Humanists, however,
believed that wealth enabled them to do fine, noble deeds, that good citizens
needed a good, well-rounded education (such as that advocated by
the Greeks and Romans), and that moral and ethical issues were related more
to secular society than to spiritual concerns.
Rebirth of Classical Studies
The rebirth of classical studies contributed to the development of all
forms of art during the Renaissance. Literature was probably the first to show signs of
classical influence. The Italian poet Petrarch (1304-1374) delighted in
studying the works of Cicero and Virgil, two great writers of the Roman
age, and he modeled some of his own writings on their works. Although
he often wrote in Latin, attempting to imitate Cicero's style, Petrarch is most
renowned for his poetry in Italian. As one of the first humanists, and as a
writer held in high esteem in his own time, he influenced the spread of
humanism--first among his admirers, and later throughout the European world.
Spiritual Matters
During the Renaissance, a churchman named Martin Luther changed Christianity.
On October 31, 1517, he went to his church in the town of Wittenburg,
Germany,
and posted a list of things that worried him about the church. His list
included the church's practice of selling indulgences, a means by which
people could pay the church to reduce the amount of time their souls
must spend in purgatory instead of atoning for their sins via
contrition. Luther also requested that, when appropriate, Mass be said
in the native language instead of in Latin so that the church's
teachings would be more accessible to the people. This request
for reform ignited the beginnings of the Protestant Reformation. Many
other
Christians agreed that the church needed to change, and several new
Christian
religions were established during this time. The old church became
known as Roman
Catholic, and new Christian sects were known by their leaders--among
them
Lutherans (Luther) and Calvinists (John Calvin).
Symmetry, Shape, Size
The recovery of ancient manuscripts showed the humanists how the Greeks
and Romans employed mathematics to give structure to their art. The relationship between these
two studies is most evident in architecture, where numerical ratios
were used in building design.
A ratio is nothing more than a relationship between two quantities. For
example, a building that is 100 feet wide and 50 feet tall has a ratio
between its width and its height of 2:1 (100:50 = 2:1).
Proportions in Architecture
One of the most interesting proportions used by Renaissance artists, the
golden mean, had also been used by the ancient Greeks in art and
architecture. Often found in nature in the shape of a leaf or the
spiral of a shell, the golden mean is thought to add harmonious
composition to buildings and other structures.
The humanists also used the writings of Vitruvius, a Roman architect, to guide
them in their architectural designs. Vitruvius extolled the virtues of proportion
and symmetry in architecture, and he explained how the human body represented
the beauty of proportion in nature.
Renaissance architects, especially those
in Italy, also went to the ruins of ancient buildings to measure them
and learn how proportion and symmetry were applied in real structures.
The
result of these studies was a new philosophy of beauty in building.
Gothic
spires and decorations imitating movement towards heaven were replaced
by
elegant symmetry demonstrating the intellect of man.
Architecture
In constructing churches, Renaissance architects no longer used the
shape of a cross as a basis for their structures. Instead, they based
them on the circle. Believing that ancient mathematicians equated
circles with geometric perfection, architects used the circle to
represent the perfection of God.
In constructing their homes, wealthy people of the Renaissance
often adopted a Roman style, building the four sides of their homes
around a courtyard. Simple, symmetrical decorations--imitations of classical
ones--were applied to the façades of buildings, and some structures also featured columns reminiscent of ancient temples.
Painting
Painting of the Renaissance demonstrate the application of humanistic ideals
learned from the ancients. In works from the Middle Ages, saints and
Biblical
figures are arranged in unnatural, geometric groups, and backgrounds
are nothing more than washes of gold. The Renaissance painter depicted
the human figure as realistically as possible, often with backgrounds
of
the natural world. Science had taught the artist how to show linear
perspective--that is, how to represent objects in relative sizes so
that smaller objects
appear to be farther from the viewer than larger objects. Careful use
of
light and shadow (called "chiaroscuro") made figures appear full and
real.
Renaissance painters not only portrayed objects with more realism than
earlier artists did, they often filled their canvases with more
objects,
all carefully and accurately depicted.
Music
Since the Middle Ages, music
theorists had been studying proportions, a subject that the Greek
mathematician
Pythagoras had written about when discussing music. The theorists
explained how to make different pitches (sounds) on stringed
instruments by lengthening or shortening the strings by different
proportions. For example, if a musician were to divide a string in half
(the proportion of 2:1), he would create a new tone that is an octave
above the original tone. Renaissance musicians carried on this idea in
their own music.
Renaissance composers also incorporated the classics into their
craft. By studying Greek drama, they discovered the art of making their
music reflect the lyrics in their songs--making music sound happy for
words of joy and sorrowful for words of grief. When they learned that
ancient Greek drama (which featured music) brought the audience to
tears with its sad music, Renaissance composers tried to re-create that
theatrical experience. They didn't succeed, but their efforts resulted
in the birth of opera.
Why was the improvements of technology
important during the Renaissance and what the improvements meant for
the peasants and serfs.
- In the Middle Ages
tools were developed for exploration continued to be use during the
Renaissance, such as the astrolabe, a portable device used by sailors
to help them find their way. By measuring
the distance of the sun and stars above the horizon, the astrolabe
helped determine latitude, an important tool in navigation. Another
tool, the magnetic compass,
which had been invented in the twelfth century, was improved upon
during
the Renaissance.
- Not only astrolabes were improved during the
Renaissance, Maps, too, where improved and became more reliable as
Portuguese map makers, called cartographers, incorporated information
provided by travelers and explorers into their work, but Maps still
were not perfect.
- Shipbuilding also improved during the Renaissance, as large
ships called galleons became common. These ships were powered by sail rather
than by men using oars.
